High-Quality Early Childhood Environments Pay Dividends

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

Rapid cognitive, emotional, and social development occurs during the first years of a child's life. During this period, children start to learn about the world, form relationships, and acquire knowledge that they will use throughout life. The quality of the environments in which they grow, particularly in early childhood, can significantly influence their developmental trajectories and their life outcomes. High-quality childcare is linked to better short, medium, and long-term outcomes for children.  

A high-quality early childhood environment equips children with the foundational skills necessary for school. The US National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Childhood Research Network conducted a comprehensive study in 2002 that demonstrated this critical correlation. According to the NICHD, children who spent their early years in high-quality care environments exhibited superior cognitive abilities and social skills compared to those who did not (NICHD Early Childhood Research Network, 2002). These children exhibited increased language skills, better problem-solving capabilities, and were more skilled at social interaction, skills that are important for a successful school experience.  

While high-quality early childhood environments are important for all children, childcare programs for children who may be at risk can yield even more pronounced benefits. The economist James Heckman argues that early interventions can dramatically improve outcomes for children living with disadvantages. Heckman argues that such programs are positively associated with academic achievement and negatively associated with externalizing behaviour and involvement with the criminal justice system. In other words, children involved in these programs not only perform better academically but also tend to exhibit less disruptive behaviour and are less likely to become involved with the justice system later in life.  

The benefits of high-quality early childhood environments extend into adulthood. For instance, the Perry Preschool Study, a well-known longitudinal study, showed that individuals who attended high-quality preschools in their early years had higher earnings, were more likely to hold a job, had committed fewer crimes, and were more likely to have graduated from high school than those who did not attend such preschools (Schweinhart et al., 2005). These long-term benefits further emphasize the necessity of high-quality early childhood environments in setting children on a successful life trajectory.  

High-quality early childhood environments play an instrumental role in shaping children's futures. The evidence, as demonstrated by studies from the NICHD, Heckman, and others, clearly shows that such environments significantly contribute to children's school readiness, academic achievements, social and cognitive well-being, and long-term outcomes. Investing in high-quality early childhood care and education should be a priority for all societies because early childhood care and education produce benefits for the individuals, communities, and the nations that provide them.

 I am taking a break for the holidays and will return in mid January. Season’s Greetings.

 References

 Heckman, J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science,   312(5782), 1900-1902.

 Heckman, J. (2013). Giving kids a fair chance. MIT Press.

 NICHD Early Childhood Research Network. (2002). Early child care and children's development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. American Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 133-164.

 Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The HighScope Perry Preschool study through age 40. Monographs of the HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 14.

Good Intentions Can Have Bad Outcomes

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]

 Starting in September 2025, the Ontario government will incorporate mandatory content into the Grade 10 Canadian History curriculum about the Holodomor famine to educate students about its impact on the Ukrainian community in Canada. The curriculum will focus on the man-made famine that occurred between 1932 and 1933, leading to the deaths of millions of Ukrainians. The material is intended to reinforce Canadian values like democracy, freedom, human rights, and the rule of law, by teaching students the dangers and negative outcomes of extreme ideologies. Starting in the same school year, the B.C. government plans to expand the Grade 10 social studies curriculum to make it mandatory for all students to learn about the Holocaust as part of their education on discriminatory policies and injustices.  

Integrating Holocaust education or education about the Holodomor famine into secondary school curricula should be approached with sensitivity and awareness that inclusion of curricula about such events may not have the positive outcomes envisioned.  

The Belief in a Just World (BJW) is a well-studied cognitive bias that leads people to rationalize injustice, often by blaming the victims for the treatment inflicted upon them.[1] Victim blaming is done to maintain a belief in a fundamentally fair and orderly world. People with a strong belief in a just world find it challenging to reconcile the existence of injustice or suffering without some form of reasonable cause, leading them to blame victims as a means of maintaining their belief in a just world. This cognitive bias can have significant implications in how individuals perceive and react to social and personal injustices.  

The implications of belief in a just world can significantly impact how students perceive and process information in the school curriculum about historical atrocities such as the Holocaust and the Holodomor Famine. Learning about massive injustices and genocides can create cognitive dissonance for students who strongly hold the BJW. This dissonance occurs when they are confronted with historical evidence of innocent people suffering catastrophic injustices. In trying to reconcile these facts with their belief in a just world, students might inadvertently engage in victim-blaming or rationalization, which is counterproductive to the educational goals of fostering empathy and understanding historical truths.  

The graphic and harrowing nature of topics like the Holocaust and Holodomor can have a significant emotional impact on students. Educators need to be prepared to handle potential distress and provide a supportive environment where students can process their feelings. This is especially crucial in the context of BJW, as students might struggle with the emotional burden of accepting such large-scale injustices in a world that they want to believe is fair.  

BJW might lead to oversimplified understandings of complex historical events. Education on these topics should encourage critical thinking, challenging students to understand the complex socio-political factors that led to these tragedies.  

Effective education about historical atrocities should aim to cultivate empathy and a deeper understanding of the human impact of these events. This is important in heading off any tendencies towards victim-blaming or detachment that might arise from a BJW reaction. It is crucial that students not only learn the historical facts but also connect with the human stories and suffering involved.  

Given the potential for BJW to influence student perceptions, it is important to study and monitor the long-term impacts of such education. This monitoring can inform how these subjects are taught and ensure that the educational goals – such as fostering critical thinking, empathy, and a realistic understanding of history – are being met.  

Education about the Holocaust, the Holodomor Famine, and similar injustices must be implemented thoughtfully, and its impact continuously assessed to ensure it aligns with educational objectives and addresses the challenges posed by a Belief in a Just World.

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[1] Lerner, M. J., and G. Matthews (1967). Reactions to Suffering of Others under Conditions of Indirect Responsibility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 5(3). 319-325; Hayes, R. M., Lorenz, K., & Bell, K. A. (2013). Victim Blaming Others: Rape Myth Acceptance and the Just World Belief. Feminist Criminology, 8(3), 202-220; Janoff-Bulman, R., Timko, C. and L.L. Carli (1985) Cognitive biases in blaming the victim. Journal of experimental social psychology, 21(2), 161-177.

Mental Health in Schools: The Historical Context

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

After reading my blog about mental health in schools, my UBC colleague, Jason Ellis, sent me two interesting articles by Catherine Gidney, a Canadian historian. Though he did not say so directly, in sending me those articles, Ellis was suggesting that the current concern among educators about student mental health fits prominently within the context of educational discussions in Canada.  

In her article, "From a 'Disciplined Intelligence' to a 'Culture of Care'," Gidney describes the shift in educational focus from developing disciplined intelligence to fostering a culture of care. The rising concern for student mental health is a contemporary manifestation of the shift Gidney describes. As education moved away from primarily focusing on intellectual development and moral character in line with Anglo-Christian values, it began to incorporate a broader understanding of student well-being, which includes mental health.  

The emphasis on empathy, diversity, and inclusivity in the later stages of the twentieth century aligns with current concerns about mental health. Educators today are increasingly aware of the importance of emotional literacy, mental resilience, and the overall emotional and psychological well-being of students.  

In Gidney’s article, “‘Breathe in… breathe out’: Contextualizing the Rise of Mindfulness in Canadian Schools,” she analyses the rise of mindfulness in Canadian schools.  Gidney describes the role of schools in addressing emotional regulation, stress management, and overall mental health. The integration of mindfulness practices into the curriculum is a response to the need for tools and approaches that support students' mental health and well-being.  

The mindfulness movement in education, as Gidney notes, is part of a broader trend towards holistic development that includes mental health. This reflects a deeper understanding of the interconnectedness of emotional, social, and intellectual development in students.  

I am writing about this because I found the two papers by Gidney of interest and thought readers of this blog might also. Her analysis of the historical shifts in educational priorities and practices provides a context for understanding the current emphasis on student mental health. It shows a trajectory from a narrow focus on academic achievement and character formation to a more inclusive and holistic approach that considers the emotional and psychological needs of students as central to their education and development. This historical perspective helps to locate the current attention to student mental health in the context of educational philosophy and practice. Thanks, Jason. 

Mental Health in Schools

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

Society is paying more attention to mental health issues among children and adolescents, making it hard to know whether there is an actual increase in the prevalence of mental health challenges or mainly increased attentiveness. It is probably both.  

There has been a significant increase in awareness and understanding of mental health issues in children and adolescents over the last ten years. Society is more open to talking about mental health and it is less stigmatized than in the past. This has likely led to higher rates of diagnosis and greater willingness to disclose adverse mental health conditions.  

Some of the increase in mental health challenges faced by children and youth are likely the consequence of changes in family structures, community relationships, and even the nature of childhood itself. Greater academic pressures on children and adolescents, bullying and cyberbullying, increased use of technology, and the impact of social media also play a part.  

Increased screen time and exposure to social media can lead to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression. Cyberbullying is a major problem. Sleep deprivation due to excessive screen plays a part for some.  

The pandemic has had a significant impact. Factors such as fear of the virus, disruptions to education, isolation from peers due to social distancing and school closures, and witnessing parental stress or other household difficulties no doubt had a negative impact on mental health.  

The increased prevalence of mental health issues in children and adolescents is in part due to better recognition and diagnosis, but it is also clear that sociocultural, technological, environmental factors have contributed to its increase.  

Mental health issues among children and adolescents vary widely, but certain conditions are more prevalent. Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental health issues affecting children and adolescents. The estimate is that generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias account for about a quarter of the challenges faced by school-age children and youth.  

Depressive disorders account for another estimated 10-15%, although this figure may underrepresent the true proportion because diagnosing depression in young people is hard. Inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity are referred to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD affects slightly less than 10% of children aged 2-17 in the United States. Conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder account for another 3-5%. Eating disorders affect about 2-3% of adolescents, mostly adolescent women. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) accounts for 1-2% with the prevalence appearing to increase in recent years due to improved recognition and changing diagnostic criteria. Substance use disorders account for an estimated 15-20% typically among secondary school students.  

These are broad estimates largely based on US data and many children and adolescents who are diagnosed with one disorder might also be diagnosed with another.  

Schools have come to play a role in recognizing and addressing mental health issues given the significant amount of time children and adolescents spend there. However, the capacity of schools to effectively address these issues varies widely depending on resources, training, and policies.  

Schools can play a crucial role in early identification and intervention with students who manifest anxiety and depressive disorders. Counselors and psychologists in schools can provide initial assessment and intervention and can refer students to external services when necessary and available. Some provinces have implemented mental health education in their curriculum to promote awareness and provide coping strategies. But the reality is that not all schools have the resources to adequately provide these services, a situation that is made more difficult because there is often a shortage of trained school-based mental health professionals.  

Schools are often involved in the identification and management of ADHD through individualized education plans, which provide accommodations to help students succeed. However, teacher and staff training in recognizing and managing ADHD can vary widely.  

Schools are usually the first to notice behavioral disorders given their disruptive nature. However, managing these disorders can be challenging and may require a combination of special education services, behavioral intervention plans, and collaboration with external mental health professionals.  

Eating disorders might be less visible within a school setting unless they are severe. But schools can play a role in promoting healthy body image and eating habits, and school nurses – where they still exist - or health programs can help with early identification.  

Schools provide special education services for students with Autism to help meet their unique needs. These might include speech-language therapy, social skills training, and other interventions. However, the quality and availability of these services vary widely.  

Schools can offer support for students dealing with trauma through counseling and other mental health services. Some schools have started to implement trauma-informed care approaches that recognize and respond to the signs of trauma. However, these services and approaches are not universally available or implemented.  

Schools can help prevent substance abuse through education. Some schools have established policies and resources to support students struggling with substance use, but students who abuse often require specialized treatment beyond what schools can provide.  

A key challenge is the gap between the number of students who need mental health services and the availability of resources. This includes the lack of sufficient trained staff, funding, and comprehensive school-based mental health programs. Stigma about mental illness can prevent students from seeking help, and privacy concerns can make the communication among schools, families, and external mental health providers complicated.  

It is important to recognize that schools are primarily educational institutions and not a substitute for professional mental health services. While they can provide support for the mental health of students, collaboration with families and community mental health services is necessary to provide comprehensive care.  

There is a considerable amount of evidence supporting the value of providing  mental health services in schools. Many students who might not otherwise receive mental health services can access them in the school setting. Early identification and intervention can help prevent the escalation of mental health problems.  

Based on the accumulated evidence and expert consensus, the best practices for providing mental health services in schools include a multitiered system of supports. This includes universal prevention programs for all students, focused interventions for those at risk, and intensive services for students with significant mental health challenges. School Mental Health Ontario is leading such an approach.  

Schools should employ professionals with special preparation for providing mental health services such as school nurses, school psychologists, social workers, and counselors. Such personnel are qualified to provide individual and group counseling, crisis intervention, mental health assessments, and referrals to community mental health services when needed.  

Schools can partner with community mental health providers to deliver more intensive services in the school setting, helping to overcome barriers to access like transportation or stigma. But, if we expect schools to provide mental health services, staff need training in recognizing the signs of mental health issues, strategies for managing them in the classroom, and have an established process for referring students for mental health services.  

Incorporating mental health education into the curriculum can improve awareness, reduce stigma, and give students strategies for managing their own mental health. Increasingly schools are providing instruction in emotional regulation, stress management, and forming and maintaining healthy relationships.   

Families play an important role in supporting students' mental health. Schools should involve families in planning and delivering mental health services and should also provide resources to help families support their children's mental health. But they will need preparation and resources for doing so. If schools provide mental health services, the services provided should be sensitive to the cultural and linguistic needs of students and families.  

Instead of an exclusive emphasis on addressing mental health issues when they arise, schools should focus on promoting overall well-being and resilience. This should include fostering a positive school climate, promoting social-emotional learning, and providing opportunities for physical activity and creative expression. In an earlier blog I lamented the loss of school-based nurses. Were they reinstated, nurses could be very helpful in early identification of the broad ranges of mental health issues.  

School mental health is a rapidly evolving field. Best practices continue to be refined based on research and experience. The challenge remains in ensuring these best practices are widely adopted and adequately resourced, and that there is policy support, professional development, and funding to ensure all students get the mental health services they need. 

“P.E. teachers are going to love this blog!”

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

“P.E. teachers are going to love this blog,” my wife said when I told her that I had read a meta-analysis confirming the positive relationship between physical activity and cognitive functions in children and youth. The article systematically searched and analyzed studies to confirm that being active and engaging in physical exercise is good for improving children’s thinking abilities. These thinking abilities include basic cognitive functions like processing speed, core executive functions like paying attention and remembering instructions, and higher-level executive functions like problem-solving and planning.  

The study points out that physical activities that are part of the school curriculum are especially effective. These activities don’t just make kids sharper thinkers; previous studies have also shown that they keep kids physically healthier.  

Given these positive effects, the study suggests that the information could be valuable for those who make policies or decisions about children’s health and education. It implies that encouraging physical activity could lead to better performance in school, improve mental health by reducing issues like anxiety and depression, and even prevent heart disease.  

However, some schools in recent years seem to be reducing curricular opportunities for physical activity. The review argues that, if educational and public health guidelines take these findings into account, they could help reverse this trend. But to have high quality curriculum in physical activity, you need professionals who really know how to design physical activities that are both fun and developmentally useful for kids.  

The study suggests that future research should look into how the environment, like playgrounds and general surroundings, can be designed to encourage kids to be more active and how this, in turn, could help in their brain development.  

Not everyone will be pleased with the findings of this meta-analysis. Current research suggests that different kinds of exercise do not all affect brain functions in the same way. Exercises that involve complex thinking and controlled, adaptable movements (for example, dance, juggling, games requiring strategies) seem to have a more significant positive effect on executive functions, which are the mental skills that help us manage time, pay attention, switch focus, plan and organize, and remember details.  

The authors of the study also indicate that physical activity done in the classroom doesn't seem to boost children’s thinking skills. This conclusion comes from combining results from classroom-based activities with results from other physical activities that aren't part of the curriculum, like what children do during recess. When they compared this mixed bag of school-time physical activities to structured physical education classes that are part of the curriculum, the latter seems to have a more substantial benefit for children’s cognitive development.  

It is affirmation of the benefit of structured physical education classes, carefully planned and executed, that will please the P.E. teachers.

_______ 

Álvarez-Bueno, C., Pesce, C., Cavero-Redondo, I. , Sánchez-López, M., Martínez-Hortelano, J.A., and V. Martínez-Vizcaíno (2017) The Effect of Physical Activity Interventions on Children’s Cognition and Metacognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56 (9), 729-738, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.012.

The Role of School Boards in Guiding Student Achievement, Equity, and Trust

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

The cyclical nature of the school year, coupled with the consistent influx of students embodying a diverse array of backgrounds and abilities makes the educational goals of enhancing student achievement, fostering equity, and reinforcing public confidence in the educational system ones that endure over time. Each incoming cohort of students brings with it a unique blend of strengths, challenges, and needs. The variety of these needs - cognitive, socio-emotional, cultural, linguistic, physical, among others - reinforces the persistent nature of improving student achievement and success, ensuring equity among different groups of students, and instilling confidence in the school system.  

Improving student achievement and success is a constant because, with each new group of students, there is a renewed need to ensure they acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for their success in school and beyond. Every year, schools welcome students with diverse abilities, ethnicities, socio-economic statuses, and more. Equity in education means ensuring that all students achieve outcomes unimpeded by their backgrounds or circumstances. Given the diversity in any school population, the pursuit of equity is an ongoing task that must be addressed anew with each incoming cohort.  

The credibility of the school system is dependent on its ability to adapt to the changing needs of the student population and the broader community. It must strive to improve, to foster an environment of trust and respect, and to deliver on its commitments to the citizens who rely on the school system to prepare the young to take their role as citizens. As societal expectations and contexts evolve, so too does the need for the school system to demonstrate its relevance, effectiveness, and reliability.  

The rapid pace of technological change requires schools to modify teaching strategies to prepare students for a world increasingly dependent on technology. This constant need for adaptation underscores the enduring nature of the goal of improving student achievement and success. As societal values and norms shift, so too do the expectations placed on schools. Schools are places where students are prepared for their participation in a democratic society that values respect for diversity, civic responsibility, and social justice. Schools have a responsibility to prepare students to engage with diverse cultures and perspectives. The goal of promoting equity must therefore extend to include intercultural understanding and competence.  

The persistence of these goals — enhancing student achievement, fostering equity, and building public confidence in the education system — highlights their importance, and there is an argument to be made that they should be at the core of a school board's strategic focus. The essential role these goals play in shaping an effective and inclusive educational environment is undeniable, and their achievement can be seen as a critical indicator of the success of an educational institution.  

Reducing the strategic goals of a school board exclusively to these objectives may not encapsulate the multifaceted nature of education, nor address the complexity and variety of students' needs. Education isn't merely about academic achievement, but also about holistic development, including social, emotional, and physical wellbeing. Similarly, equity extends beyond academic equity to include providing a safe, inclusive, and supportive environment for all students, regardless of their background, abilities, or identity. These important dimensions of schooling should be reflected in board policies and, if they are not expressed in policy, school boards should have as a strategic objective for their development.  

Matters such as teacher recruitment and retention, budgeting, and facilities management are operational matters that are necessary to achieve the broader goals of education. How these operational tasks are managed and executed to effectively support these broader goals depends on the Superintendent that the Board hires.  

The Superintendent sets priorities for hiring teachers with specific skill sets or experiences, establishes and implements programs to support teacher development and job satisfaction, and allocates resources towards competitive compensation packages. The superintendent’s budgeting decisions should prioritize programs and resources that have been shown to be effective, efficient, and economical.  

While these areas are indeed operational in nature, they require planning and decision-making to ensure they align with and support the broader educational goals. School board oversight can ensure their operations not only address the day-to-day functions of the schools but also contribute to the long-term vision and goals of the education system.  

The role of the school board extends beyond just hiring a superintendent to manage operations. School boards are responsible for setting the strategic direction of the district, establishing policies, and holding the superintendent accountable for implementing these policies and achieving the set goals.  

While the superintendent handles the day-to-day operational aspects of running the school district, the school board is responsible for ensuring that these operations align with the larger strategic goals. So, even though operational tasks like teacher recruitment, budgeting, and facilities management might be handled primarily by the superintendent, the school board still has a crucial role in overseeing the performance of the superintendent.  

While the tactics and methods employed by the school board’s leadership may change over time, the underlying goals of improving student achievement, ensuring equity, and instilling confidence in the school system are constant because of the changing nature of the student population and the broader social, economic, and technological context in which schools operate. 

Some mistakes are too important to ignore

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

There are mistakes in Geoff Johnson’s article “FSA not a good way of assessing Indigenous students” in the Times Colonist posted on October 29^th that deserve correction for several reasons. One is that the Times Colonist is widely read. The other is that the designation of “former superintendent” adds authority to the errors he has made.  

As noted in his article, “the Foundations Skills Assessment is administered to all Grade 4 and Grade 7 students, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous.” The mistakes arise from his claim that the Foundation Skills Assessment is not a good way of assessing Indigenous students. One of them is the logical fallacy in his statement. He writes, “turns out that the four ‘lowest performing’ elementary schools on the FSA, according to the Fraser Institute’s one-shot ranking system, have significant populations of First Nations students.”  

In making that statement Johnson is committing the logical fallacy “after this, therefore because of this.” The logical fallacy occurs when someone assumes that because one event or set of conditions preceded another, the first event must have caused the second. In saying that the lowest performing elementary schools have significant populations of First Nations students, he is implying that the poor performance is attributable to the student composition of those schools.  

Another mistake deserving correction is drawing the connection between the performance of those schools and the assertion that “assessing a child in a way that does not seem meaningful or relevant to their life and culture is inauthentic and therefore meaningless, because it does not respect the learning of the whole child.” Indigenous children live in a society in which and literacy in the dominant language and numeracy figure prominently and where both have been used to deny Indigenous peoples their rights. Knowing how well Indigenous students perform on such assessments is essential to ensuring that they are being educated to the same standard as their non-Indigenous peers and from equipping them with the knowledge they need to defend their rights.  

I agree with Johnson that ensuring that the measures used to assess Indigenous youngsters are fair is essential. Johnson strongly asserts that “a central problem with the lack of validity of the FSA, as far as Indigenous students are concerned, is that the tests often contain items expressed in a way not obvious to an Indigenous student who might have a worldview and experiences that differ from the dominant Western culture.”  

This is something about which evidence can be brought to bear. Differential Item Functioning (DIF) is a technique used in assessment to determine if a question is fair to different groups of people. Imagine, for example, a math assessment, and you find out that for some reason, boys are more likely to get Question 5 right than girls, even when both groups are equally good at math. If that's the case, then Question 5 has "differential item functioning." Question 5 is not measuring math skills equally for boys and girls. DIF helps us figure out if a particular question on a test is easier or harder for one group of people compared to another, helping to ensure that tests are fair and unbiased.  

Before strongly asserting that the FSA is inappropriate for Indigenous students, one should consider the evidence. Johnson’s reference to the 2013 article by Jane P. Preston and Tim R. Claypool and the invocation of the imprimatur of The Canadian Council on Learning does not substitute for evidence about the Foundation Skills Assessment.  

Johnson quotes a B.C. government media release saying, “the redesign of curriculum maintains a focus on sound foundations of literacy and numeracy while supporting the development of citizens who are capable thinkers and communicators, and who are personally and socially competent in all areas of their lives.” He follows the quotation with the claim that the government statement ignores research about Indigenous ways of learning and is “dangerously close to being as colonial as you can get.”  

Could it not be argued that Johnson’s assertion is colonial? Johnson seems to imply that Indigenous students are by reason of ancestry or circumstance unable to demonstrate that they are capable thinkers and communicators. I doubt that was his intention. However, it seems very similar to the incorrect inferences drawn about women; namely that they are by constitution incapable of being pilots, surgeons, entrepreneurs, etc.  

There are three crucial omissions from Johnson’s article. One is the fact that the First Nations Leadership Council supports the use of the Foundation Skills Assessment as “. . . one among many tools necessary to address the ‘racism of low expectations’ experienced by First Nations learners as identified by the BC Auditor General in their 2015 report.” The second is that Indigenous educators are involved in item development for the assessment. The third is that the assessments contain First Peoples content written by and about First Peoples, and their development is guided by the First Peoples Principles of Learning.  

It is for these reasons that I hope Johnson will revise his article in the Times Colonist.

Deciphering the Jargon

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission granted to reproduce if authorship is acknowledged]  

I have been reading school board strategic plans lately and realize that we use a variety of terms in education to express our intentions. Too often the words 'goals', 'objectives', 'strategies', 'measures', and 'metrics' lack meaning because they are used imprecisely, though each has a purpose in describing our intentions.  

The term 'goal' refers to the broad, overarching vision that a school board, school, or teacher wants to achieve. Goals are usually long-term and encompass wide-ranging areas of development. For instance, a goal could be to enhance students' literacy skills or to foster a community of critical thinkers.  

Objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) targets set to accomplish goals. They are more precise than goals and have a shorter timeframe. An objective that aligns with the goal of enhancing students' literacy skills might be expressed as: to increase the average reading level of students in grade three by one level by the end of the academic year. Although laudable, the objective to make learning fun lacks the specificity and measurability required to make it an effective objective.  

Strategies are the methods or approaches that will be used to achieve the objectives that have been established. They are action-oriented and detail the specific activities that will be undertaken. A strategy to increase the reading level, for example, might be implement a peer reading program where students read together twice a week, and conduct monthly assessments to track progress. The statement to use more technology in class is vague; it does not provide a clear roadmap for achieving any objective.  

Measures refer to the specific tools or means of gathering data to evaluate the success of strategies in achieving objectives. In the literacy example above, a measure could be administer monthly reading assessments and compare scores to baseline levels at the start of the year.  While observation is a method of gathering data, the statement observe students during class isn't a measure because it fails to specify what is being observed and how the data will be used.  

Metrics are specific indicators or units of measurement used to quantify the data collected using measures. Using the literacy example above, a metric could be the number of reading levels a student improves over the academic year. While the amount of time students spend reading could provide valuable information, it is not a direct indicator of the objective (increasing reading levels), making it a less effective and less relevant metric.  

Goals, objectives, strategies, measures, and metrics are interrelated terms that one might employ as a framework for improving educational outcomes in elementary and secondary schools. Goals offer the vision, objectives provide specific targets, strategies outline the pathway, measures offer the tools for assessment, and metrics provide units for quantifying progress. Each plays a part when they are used with precision.

 

Public Confidence in Education

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

As of 2018, public confidence in education in Canada had been stable for a decade. Slightly greater than three-quarters of the population (77%) expressed satisfaction with their schools and in the education system generally. The approval rate for all OECD countries was 65%. Canada trailed Ireland and most Nordic countries (84%), Slovenia and the Netherlands (81%) and exceeded the United States at 67%.  Anecdotal evidence suggests that confidence in public education may have been affected by the way education systems addressed the challenges of the COVID pandemic, but I have yet to see any systematically collected data.  

If the 77% satisfaction score was a letter grade, Canada’s education system would be a solid B to B+. That’s not bad. But there are some things that might be done to increase public confidence in the system and improve its impact upon students.  

Teaching is too complicated to leave to generalists. Generalist teachers are pretty good. They are in many respects like my family physician. She is adept at handling many everyday maladies, but when she encounters something beyond her realm of expertise, she refers her patients to specialists.  

Individuals preparing to teach develop specializations: language arts, social studies, science, mathematics, technology studies, etc. I am a certificated teacher whose specialization is social studies (civics and history). I am an adept reader and can apply statistical techniques with reasonable success. I could not however teach beginning readers or grade 8 mathematics. Nevertheless, if I agreed, I could be employed to teach either in British Columbia.  

Teacher certification in British Columbia does not designate the areas in which teachers have prepared. It should. Elementary teachers should be required to demonstrate proficiency in literacy and numeracy since they establish the foundation in those two crucial areas. The certificates earned by secondary teachers should designate the teacher’s area of instructional expertise. All teachers should be encouraged to expand their areas of expertise beyond the fields in which they were initially prepared.  

To the best of my knowledge, teaching is the only regulated profession in British Columbia that does not require practitioners to maintain the currency of their knowledge of teaching. Of course, many teachers do. But there is no requirement that they do. There should be.  

Teachers prepared in British Columbia have typically completed a practicum (student teaching) of approximately four months, during which their fitness to practice is assessed. If they have migrated from other jurisdictions, the period during which their entry-to-practice competency was assessed may have been shorter.  

Lengthening the practicum is something I favor, but I think the first two years of teaching should be probationary and one during which beginning teachers are mentored by their peers and have their performance evaluated regularly. A longer period of probationary practice would likely improve the quality of instruction provided by beginning teachers and enhance the public’s confidence in education.  

As good as a B or B+ may be, it may not be sufficient to retain the support of some parents. Private school enrollments in British Columbia have been growing incrementally. The implementation of the changes suggested above may help to counter the perception among some that “good is not good enough.”

 

It’s Crazy Making

 

Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

When confronted by uncertainty, my mother used to say, “it’s crazy making.” She was not unusually anxious. In fact, she was among the most placid people I have known. Nonetheless, she knew that uncertainty caused stress.  

Most of us manage the stress that uncertainty engenders by seeking information. I consult the weather forecast to reduce uncertainty about whether it will rain tomorrow or the next day. I reduce my uncertainty about my retirement income by use information about company performance, economic indicators, and market trends to make investment decisions.  

When my physician diagnosed a medical condition a couple of years ago, I asked her how she arrived at her diagnosis. She said that she had considered my medical history, symptoms, and the results of the diagnostic tests she had ordered to reduce her uncertainty and that, in turn, reduced my anxiety.   

Education is a complex process influenced by many factors that create uncertainty. The diversity of learner characteristics, complexity of subject matter, classroom dynamics, and socio-cultural and other influences (COVID-19, for example) make the outcomes of decision-making uncertain. I often wonder why people do not make use of the information at our disposal to reduce uncertainty.  

The idea that information reduces uncertainty can be traced to the foundations of information theory and the work of Claude Shannon, a mathematician and electrical engineer. Shannon introduced the concept of "entropy" as a measure of uncertainty, surprise, or information content. He used this concept to quantify the amount of uncertainty that could be reduced by a piece of information. In other words, the more information you have, the less uncertain you are.  

While originally intended for communication and signal processing, Shannon’s foundational concepts can be applied to decision-making in education. As stated above, the more information you have about something, the less uncertainty there is about it. In education, this implies using information about students such as their learning progress, classroom dynamics, etc., to reduce the uncertainty about making decisions about teaching strategies, individual student interventions, curriculum adjustments, or school-wide policies.  

We could apply Shannon's concept of entropy that he used to measure uncertainty of information content metaphorically to education. We might think about educational 'entropy' as the degree of uncertainty or lack of knowledge we have about a student's learning. To reduce this entropy, we need to gather more relevant 'information' through assessments, observations, and feedback—which can guide our decision-making.  

We could think about Shannon's idea of channel capacity—the maximum rate of information that can be sent over a communication channel without error— in terms of cognitive load in learning. The human brain can only process a certain amount of information at once. Knowing that, we can organize instruction in manageable chunks to avoid overwhelming students.  

Shannon also talked about noise as the errors or interferences that can affect the accuracy of a signal during transmission. In education, 'noise' can be any factor that impedes teaching or learning—like classroom disruptions, misconceptions, or even emotional distress. By identifying and minimizing these 'noises', we can enhance the 'signal' (i.e., the teaching-learning process).  

Shannon also discussed redundancy in information, noting that redundancy can help in error detection and correction during communication. In education, we can think about redundancy as reviewing and reinforcing concepts to help students better understand and retain information.  

Although Shannon's ideas were not developed for education, their metaphorical application to education provides a way of thinking about and understanding the complexities of educational decision-making, information management, and effective teaching-learning processes. 

Meritocracy and Equity

Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[Permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

In a National Post opinion piece, author Jamie Sarkonak critiques the Toronto District School Board's (TDSB) decision to replace merit-based admissions to specialty education programs with what he describes as a racial lottery system. According to Sarkonak, this system is counterproductive to promoting fairness in education.  

Under the new system, 20% of seats in special programs have been reserved for Black, Middle Eastern, Latin American, and Indigenous students. Sarkonak argues this approach neglects the real issue at hand: socio-economic disadvantage. Instead, it places the problem squarely on race, a move which Sarkonak believes undermines the principles of meritocracy. Some parents and community members have expressed concern about the shift in admissions policy, arguing that it ignores the hard work and achievements of students, replacing merit with sheer luck. Others have applauded the change because it levels the playing field for racialized students who are often under-represented in such programs.  

The principle of meritocracy – that each person's status should be a direct reflection of their individual talent and effort – holds a significant place in The North American mythology: the image of the resilient and plucky young man (yes, man because that is the dominant imagery in the myth) overcoming hardship and becoming rich.  

Equity, on the other hand, calls attention to the broader societal structures that shape individual opportunities. This principle prompts reflection on the systemic injustices that have often been entangled in Canada's progress, asking us to question how to promote fairness in the distribution of resources and opportunities.  

Canadians have contended with these two principles at other points throughout Canadian history. For instance, the late 19th and early 20th century was a time of rapid industrial growth and burgeoning faith in meritocracy. The Canadian Pacific Railway's completion symbolized the triumph of industrial ambition and individual fortitude. However, the harsh realities faced by many workers, including the often-overlooked contributions of Chinese immigrants, underlined the vast inequities that existed.  

Reforms in the 20th century, particularly with the advent of the welfare state after the Great Depression and World War II, demonstrated a growing concern for equity. Policies such as universal health care, introduced in the 1960s, spoke to a collective commitment to diminish systemic barriers and improve access to essential services for all Canadians.  

As evidenced by the debate at the Toronto District School Board, the debate about meritocracy and equity continues to shape Canadian public discourse. Debates about issues such as Indigenous rights, immigration, and social safety nets reflect this ongoing conversation. At the heart of these discussions is a fundamental question about society's values: should individual effort be the sole determinant of success, or must we also address systemic barriers that restrict access to opportunities for certain groups?  

While the concept of meritocracy, the idea that those who work hard and possess talent should rise to the top, has an intuitive appeal, it can be argued that this perspective often overlooks the role of privilege and luck in shaping people's lives. The argument for meritocracy assumes a level playing field, where everyone starts from the same place and has the same opportunities to succeed. However, this is not the reality for most people. In an ideal meritocracy, every individual, regardless of their background, would have equal access to quality education, healthcare, and opportunities to develop their skills. Yet, many are born into circumstances with limited resources, and fewer opportunities to cultivate their abilities. These individuals face greater barriers to success, no matter how talented or hard-working they might be.  

Luck plays a significant part in life's outcomes. Even when someone has worked hard and earned their achievements, it doesn't negate the role that luck may have played. This can take the form of being born into a supportive family, meeting a mentor at a crucial point in life, or simply being in the right place at the right time. To believe one's success is purely a result of their efforts is to overlook the serendipitous nature of many – perhaps most - opportunities.  

It is crucial to remember the systemic nature of many privileges. For example, a person born into a wealthy family has access to better educational opportunities, a broader social network, and a safety net if things go wrong. Societal biases often benefit certain groups, giving them an edge in educational and career opportunities.  

While individual effort and merit are important, they are part of a larger equation. The interplay of privilege and luck can significantly impact a person's opportunities and their capacity to capitalize on them. Recognizing these factors allows us to create a more equitable society where everyone genuinely has the chance to succeed based on their merit.

Schooling and Democratic Citizenship

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

Many Canadians are appalled by the overt attacks on democratic citizenship that are occurring just across the ‘world’s longest undefended border.’ Book banning, historical revisionism, ad hominem attacks, overt racism and homophobia are tactics that seem to be designed to erode the rights, duties, and privileges that come with democratic citizenship. The porousness of the boarder separating Canada from the United States has me wondering whether we need a wall.  

Not a physical wall. A wall of concepts and dispositions that schools should teach about and cultivate to ensure the sustained health of a democratic society. I am talking about preparing students for active participation in society and helping them understand their rights and responsibilities.  

I think Canadian schools need to incorporate civic education into the curriculum. Students should learn about their country's democratic institutions, the constitution, and the functioning of the government. Understanding how elections and governments work. In an increasingly polarized society, students should understand how the rights of minorities are respected in a political system that gives the majority the greatest weight in decision-making.  

Schools should encourage students to be aware of and engage in current affairs and important social issues through class discussions, debates, or assignments related to contemporary issues. Students should see the connection between their lives, the community around them, and the larger political environment. We must educate students to analyze different viewpoints, discern reliable sources of information, and make informed decisions. We should be encouraging them to question, reason, and to doubt.  

Students should have opportunities to participate in democratic processes within the school environment. They need direct experience with democratic decision-making and its messiness. Schools should also provide opportunities for students to engage with their local communities through community service, local projects, or partnerships with local organizations. The purpose of such participation is to develop their understanding of active citizenship and the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic society.  

We should be teaching students about human rights to help them understand the values underpinning democratic societies. This includes concepts such as equality, freedom, justice, and dignity.  

Schools should be microcosms of the larger society by welcoming diversity. Teaching about and demonstrating respect for diversity helps students understand the importance of pluralism in a democratic society. The school environment should reflect democratic principles. This means respecting the rights and voices of students, promoting equality, and practicing fairness. Schools should set an example by making decisions transparently, considering the views of students, and addressing conflicts fairly.  

Many readers will recall their school days when the concept of citizenship predominantly focused on the nuts and bolts of democracy, focusing on the procedural aspects of democratic governance (e.g., the election process, the roles of the Parliament, the Prime Minister, opposition parties, and the judiciary). However, I am suggesting a different approach. This approach should focus on the challenges inherent to democratic systems such as the dangers of misinformation in the digital age, the influence of money in politics, or the erosion of trust in public institutions. Incorporating these contemporary challenges into the curriculum should prompt students to critically analyze and contend with these obstacles, equipping them to become proactive contributors in their communities. This approach would offer a comprehensive understanding of democracy and equip succeeding generations to actively champion and safeguard the rights that previous generations have helped to establish.  

If schools do not deliberately teach about and cultivate democratic citizenship, who will?

Hunger, poverty, and teen pregnancy

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]  

Throughout my career I’ve heard many say that you cannot increase student achievement without addressing child poverty, hunger, and related factors such as teen pregnancy. I think addressing hunger, poverty, and teen pregnancy are essential, but I do not think addressing them is a precondition for increasing student achievement.  

It appears that substantial improvement in student achievement and outcomes is possible on a system-wide basis. Nicholas Kristof, in his May, New York Times opinion piece, discussed the transformation of Mississippi's education system, which has significantly improved from being at the lowest level to reaching the middle and then the top position when adjusted for demographics. The achievement was realized through a strong emphasis on reading proficiency by the third grade, using research-based methods and metrics to improve outcomes.  

Despite being ranked last in child poverty and hunger and second in teen births, Mississippi has successfully improved reading and math scores, and high school graduation rates. The improvements have been achieved in collaboration with teachers and their unions.  

The achievement is linked to several key factors, including a $100 million donation from former Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale and his wife to establish a reading institute in Jackson. The institute helped implement a focus on measurable outcomes and cost-effective strategies. Other strategies involved an emphasis on phonics and literacy, teacher professional development, investment in pre-K programs, and a "third-grade gate" policy that requires students to pass a reading test at the end of third grade or repeat the year. To keep students in school, officials visited students who had dropped out due to economic hardships and helped them to arrange flexible work schedules with their employers.  

Mississippi's public school system has made noticeable improvements despite substantial socio-economic challenges and a history of school segregation. If Mississippi can make such remarkable system-wide improvement, systems elsewhere should also be able to do so. The central elements in Mississippi are ones that can be implemented in other state and provincial systems: measurable goals and metrics; cost-effective, research-based methods such as phonics instruction; productive collaboration with teacher unions; and focused professional learning for teachers.  

Careful readers will note that I did not mention the "third-grade gate" policy that requires students to pass a reading test at the end of third grade or repeat the year. My reason for omitting it as a central element is that grade repetition is not supported by evidence.[1] I am, nevertheless, open to changing my perspective based on an examination of the evidence from Mississippi.  

Mississippi’s success shows that it is possible to increase student achievement without addressing child poverty, hunger, and teen pregnancy. Of course, that doesn’t mean we should not also be making efforts to reduce – if not eliminate them. 

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[1] Jimerson, S. R. (2001). Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century. School Psychology Review, 30, 420–437.

The Educated Citizen – 2023

 Charles Ungerleider, Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia

[permission to reproduce granted if authorship is acknowledged]

The policy order setting out British Columbia’s conception of the educated citizen dates from September 1, 1989 and reflects British Columbia as it was perceived at that time.

A quality education system assists in the development of human potential and improves the well being of each individual person in British Columbia society.

Continued progress toward our social and economic goals as a province depends upon well-educated people who have the ability to think clearly and critically, and to adapt to change.

Progress toward these goals also depends on educated citizens who accept the tolerant and multifaceted nature of Canadian society and who are motivated to participate actively in our democratic institutions.

Government is responsible for ensuring that all of our youth have the opportunity to obtain high quality schooling that will assist in the development of an educated society. To this end, schools in the province assist in the development of citizens who are:

thoughtful, able to learn and to think critically, and who can communicate information from a broad knowledge base;

creative, flexible, self-motivated and who have a positive self image;

capable of making independent decisions;

skilled and who can contribute to society generally, including the world of work;

productive, who gain satisfaction through achievement and who strive for physical well being;

cooperative, principled and respectful of others regardless of differences;

aware of the rights and prepared to exercise the responsibilities of an individual within the family, the community, Canada, and the world.  

Since the late 1980s, society in general and British Columbia (BC) have seen significant changes across multiple areas. The rise of digital technologies is among the most profound changes. The widespread use of the internet, smartphones, and social media has transformed how we communicate, work, learn, and entertain ourselves. This digital revolution has significant implications for education, job markets, privacy, mental health, social dynamics, and politics.  

Climate change, deforestation, overfishing, pollution, and species extinction have created greater awareness of environmental issues. With its diverse ecosystems, BC has often been at the forefront of many environmental debates. Its policies and public sentiments towards environmental preservation, renewable energy, and sustainable practices have evolved significantly since 1989.  

BC has become more ethnically diverse due to immigration. The multicultural fabric of BC has been enriched, but it has also led to challenges related to integration and social cohesion. Since the late 1980s, there's been a growing recognition of the rights of Indigenous peoples in Canada, including in BC. This includes steps towards reconciliation, land rights issues, and efforts to preserve Indigenous languages and cultures.  

BC's economy has shifted over the past few decades. While natural resources like forestry and mining remain important, there's been growth in sectors like technology, real estate, tourism, film, and wine production. Education and lifelong learning are more important than ever. There's been a growing focus on health and wellness, including mental health, since 1989.  

BC has seen a trend toward urbanization, with more people living in cities like Vancouver and Victoria. This shift has brought issues like housing affordability, urban planning, and transportation into focus.  

Society has seen shifts in social attitudes towards issues like gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and drug use. BC has often been at the forefront of these changes in Canada, with progressive policies in areas like cannabis legalization and LGBTQ+ rights.  

BC, like the rest of the world, has become more interconnected and interdependent. This has implications for the economy, culture, and politics, and has brought global issues like climate change, refugee crises, and global health threats closer to home.  

These changes have affected all aspects of life in BC, from the economy and the environment to culture and social norms, and have significant implications for education and the concept of an educated citizen. I think it is time to reconceptualize and redefine the educated citizen. Here is my first draft attempt at what such a statement should address to better reflect society today.  

The education system in British Columbia seeks to achieve our collective social, economic, and environmental goals by developing well-educated individuals who can think clearly and critically, adapt to change, and understand the complexities of our interconnected world.

British Columbia needs educated citizens who appreciate the rich and diverse nature of Canadian society, understand the global implications of climate change, acknowledge the challenges of mass migration, are dedicated to promoting social cohesion, and are eager and able to actively participate in our democratic institutions.

Government is committed to ensuring that all youth obtain high-quality education that supports the development of a just and sustainable society. To this end, schools in the province are tasked with educating citizens who are:

Thoughtful and analytical, capable of learning from a broad knowledge base, thinking critically, and communicating effectively on a range of complex topics including environment, culture, and society;

Creative, innovative, and culturally aware, appreciating the value of arts and culture in enriching the social fabric;

Capable of making independent decisions, informed by a global perspective, and responsive to the challenges of mass migration and social cohesion;

Equipped with knowledge that contributes constructively to society, including an understanding of environmental sustainability, and the impact of climate change;

Productive, who gain satisfaction through achievement, strive for physical well-being, and acknowledge the importance of mental health;

Cooperative, principled, and respectful of differences, promoting social cohesion and working towards an equitable society;

Fully aware of their democratic rights and prepared to exercise the responsibilities of an individual within the family, the community, Canada, and the world.

Aware of the Canada’s colonial past and its legacy and committed to truth and reconciliation with Indigenous peoples. 

Technologically proficient and media-literate, deriving satisfaction from effectively utilizing digital tools for personal and societal growth, recognizing the ethical considerations in a digital landscape, and appreciating the power and influence of media.

Aware and respectful of the underpinnings of Canadian democracy, including the Charter of Rights, representative democracy, and the rule of law.

This revised statement with its emphasis on climate change, mass migration, social cohesion, truth and reconciliation, democratic citizenship, and arts and culture better reflects a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges that will be faced by high school graduates. What do you think?